A Systematic Review on Water Quality Parameters: Theory and Applications with Recent Developments

Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, C.V. Raman Global Uni-versity (C.V.R.G.U), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
Email: das.abhijeetlaltu1999@gmail.com

Abstract. Water is the furthermost significant component in the terrestrial foundation and regulating the climate. It is one of the chemicals that affects life the most significantly.Typically, the characteristics of water’s physical, biological, chemical, and constitution are utilised to define it. Groundwater resources are being depleted and are becoming significantly and diversely contaminated as a result of rapid economic development and the unrestrained use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers in agriculture.In-place sewage systems, landfill leachate, wastewater treatment plant effluent, leaking sewers, hydraulic fracturing, gas stations, or excessive fertiliser use in agriculture are the usual causes of ground water adulteration. Pollution can also be brought on by natural contaminants like fluoride and arsenic.Use of tainted groundwater exposes the entire public to illness or injury.Poor water quality can lead to a range of negative effects, including subpar goods, low earnings and serious risks to human health.This document provides detailed information on underground water quality characteristics, including pH, temperature, biological oxygen demand,dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand, nitrite, hardness, ammonia, nitrate, sulphate and phosphate.

Keywords: Water Quality Index (WQI), Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Alkalinity, Eutrophication, Heavy metal.

1. Introduction

The lack of access to clean water is a global issue that affects all countries. The strong human desire to improve living standards has inevitably resulted in water pollution, with cumulative efforts and activities establishing as heavy industrial development and incessant urbanization, leading to progressive pollution of aquatic system [1-4]. When it comes to drinking, irrigation of crops, waste disposal, transportation, recreation, irrigation of crops, and industrial production, humans are utterly dependent on renewable resources of freshwater. The quality and quantity of water that can be used to placate human necessities are already threatened in many parts of the biosphere due to rising water usage, growing population, climate change and a rising water usage, the gap between freshwater availability and demand will worsen over the next century. About 80% contamination of Indian water resources, according to estimates by WHO, is caused by inhabited refuse. Water system management issues could have a substantial impact on the supply of drinking water [5-6]. Industrial waste is the main basis of water contamination. When wastewater from various industries is disposed of in the water without being properly treated [2].Water’s biological, physical and chemical properties have been changed in such a way that they are no longer useful for the intended application [7].

A change in the underlying sediments’ and aquifer’s’ chemical make-up also affects the variation in water quality. Surface sources like canals, lakes, dams, and rivers provide around one-third of the world’s drinking water needs. Water is used in some way or another by an organism’s chemical and physiological processes. In numerous aspects of existence, water is crucial. In order to research numerous physicochemical water characteristics including B.O.D. (biochemical oxygen demand), WQI (water quality index), D.O0 (dissolved oxygen), Eutrophication, heavy metal, alkalinity, etc., water samples from rivers and lakes provide an appropriate platform. Many scientists have occasionally studied the physicochemical properties of water bodies. The physicochemical features will also aid in the continuation of eco-biological impact research, the detection of pollution sources and the beginning of remedial action procedures for polluted water bodies [8–10]. Numerous scholars in India have studied the physicochemical and biological properties of reservoirs and rivers. Since a variety of physical and chemical elements can combine to affect primary production levels, which in turn affect total biomass and trophy structure across the aquatic food web, water quality must be taken into account when evaluating wetland habitat.

In the current review work, certain parameters for evaluating the quality of water have been presented together with earlier research on the subject by academics and scientists.

• Analysis of Water Quality

Before using water for drinking, residential, industrial or agricultural purposes, it must first be tested. Different biological, physical and chemical factors must be used to test water. The only factors considered when selecting water testing parameters are the envisioned use of the water and the level to which its purity and quality are required. [11-14]. Different kinds of microbiological, dissolving, suspended, floating, and bacteriological pollutants are present in water. Physical tests should be conducted to evaluate the substance’s odor, colour, temperature, pH, TDS, turbidity and further physical characteristics. Chemical tests should be conducted to evaluate the substance’s COD, BOD, alkalinity, hardness, DO and other characteristics [15]. Water must be verified for heavy metal trace, organic and metal contaminants like pesticide scum in order to obtain more and more pure, high-quality water. It goes without saying that potable water must satisfy all of the required parameters during tests and contain the necessary amount of minerals [16-17]. Only in wealthy nations are all these requirements properly checked because there are very few organic and heavy metal pesticide contaminants in water, necessitating extremely analytical equipment and skilled labor. To monitor the water quality, a variety of physical-chemical parameters must be used.

• Temperature Measurement

Using a digital thermometer, the temperature is determined by dipping the thermometer in the sample and recording the result [18]. Temperature is the degree of heat or cold in an aquatic organism’s body, whether it is in water or on land. Despite having cold blood, fish experience body temperature changes in response to their environment. These changes have an impact on the fish’s physiology and metabolism as well as its production. The micro biota’s rate of metabolic activity as well as their rate of respiration both increase with temperature because of the rise in oxygen demand. It also results in increased ammonia levels in water and decreased oxygen solubility. However, with prolonged ice cover, chemicals such as carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide can build up to dangerous levels and affect the health of fish.

Fig. 1. Global map of temperature of shallow groundwater and land surface (GWT). LST is calculated using the daily MODIS products MOD11A1 and MYD11A1 averaged over a 10-year period (01/2005–12/2014). With regard to seasonal fluctuations in cloud cover, the bias in favor of cloud-free days was rectified. The same time frame saw the collection of (multi)annual mean GWTs at depths of up to 60 m

Fig. 2. Relationship between (a) and temperature of land surface (LST) and groundwater temperature (GWT) and (b) estimated and measured GWT. The equality line is shown in dark grey

• pH Measurement

The pH of water is a significant factor in determining its acceptability for a variety of uses, bathing, cooking, including drinking, agriculture and washing, among others. According to the BIS, water’s pH should not overlie on either side of range 6.50-8.50. With a pH of 7, pure water is considered to be neutral. Acidic water is that which has a pH below 7.0, and basic or alkaline water is that which has a pH over 7.0

• DO Measurement

Determining the amount of dissolved oxygen in a river is crucial since aquatic life there depends on it and needs at least 4ppm of DO to survive [8, 18, 21]. DO tests are carried out to confirm this. The Digital Dissolve Oxygen Meter is used to measure the DO test at the location of the sample collection. When measuring DO on-site, the results are correct, but if DO is measured later, the results will alter due to changes in the atmosphere and temperature

• BOD Measurement

The BOD is a measurement of how much total dissolved oxygen is used by microorganisms during the biodegradation of organic materials, such as sewage or food particles. Rural ponds may have an excessive amount of phosphate, cow waste, and domestic sewage from non-point sources, which all contribute to a high organic load and a higher BOD level

• COD Measurement

Chemical oxygen demand, which is typically combined with biological oxygen demand, is a measure of the amount of organics in water (BOD). The COD is a measurement of the amount of organic matter in a sample that can be oxidized by a potent chemical oxidant. . The COD is frequently employed as a gauge of the organic and inorganic materials’ susceptibility to oxidation in water bodies, industrial plant effluents and sewage discharges . As a result, the COD is an accurate indicator for determining the degree of water pollution . As organic and inorganic matter concentrations rise, so does the COD of water . According to Garg , the COD concentration in Ramsagar reservoir ranged from 3.600 to 17.400 mg/l.

Fig. 3. Distribution of the stage of population of sprat in the two possible community conditions that give birth to the COD Allee effect. Right: Staffing to big size classes of sprat is strong with the presence of COD and high predation, especially on minor sprat, as a result of decreased intra-specific competition. Left: In absence of COD and low predation, individuals amass in the trivial-adult stage (stunted population). As a result, the remaining sprats grow quickly and produce a lot of progenies (arrows), which (mainly young) cod can eat. Even though cod target all sprat size classes, only the flow of biomass illustrating predation on young sprat is depicted because this interaction is what ultimately results in the other community states

• Carbon-di-Oxide Measurement

Unrestricted carbon dioxide, an exceedingly soluble gas in water generated by animal respiration, serves as nature’s primary source of carbon. It can exist in water as dissolved or bound bicarbonate or carbonates in coral reef habitats, the earth’s crust, and limestone. The pH of any system, especially those with inadequate buffering, is reduced when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water. This pH decrease can be harmful to aquatic life

• Alkalinity Measurement

Alkalinity, a measurement of the inclusive concentration of bases in pond water that includes dissolved calcium, magnesium, and other compounds as well as, bicarbonates, hydroxides, borates, phosphates, and carbonates, is the volume of water to engross variations in pH. Alkalinity is primarily increased by lime leaching from cement ponds or calcareous rocks, photosynthesis, sulfate reduction, and de-nitrification and it is primarily decreased or consumed by sulfide, respiration, and nitrification , as well as to a lesser extent by evaporation and decomposing organic matter. However, in case of insufficient alkalinity, even minor bit of acid might source a large pH change.

• Nitrite-N (NO₂-N) Measurement

An intermediate in the transformation of NH₄⁺ or NH₃ into NO₃, nitrite, that is a by-product of oxidized NH₃ or NH₄⁺. Nitrification, which is carried out by the system’s naturally occurring highly chemo-autotrophic bacteria, aerobic, gram-negative, completes this process. Due to the rapid nature of the dialogue, large nitrite amounts are not frequently seen. The “brown blood illness” is a condition where high amounts of the substance do, however, result in hypoxia brought on by the hemoglobin in fish blood becoming inactive [34]. Boyd [35] asserts that less than 0.3 mg/l of nitrite is the ideal level for aquaculture. The concentration of nitrite at cage stations was greater than the standard permitted value due to the influence from fish waste and more feed, according to research [36–42] that found the concentration of nitrite-N lied in the range of 0.001-0.28 mg/l in cage culture systems. It has been discovered that a higher less dissolved oxygen, more ammonia and pH can make it more poisonous.

• Nitrate-N (NO₃-N) Determination

Nitrate is created via the process of nitrification, which is the oxidation of NO₂ to NO₃ by aerobic bacteria. De-nitrification of nitrate that aquatic plants cannot directly absorb occurs in anaerobic sediments . According to Boyd , the ideal nitrate content for aquaculture is between 0.2 to 10 mg/l. Sewage and other pollutants high in nitrates can also contaminate surface water. Drinking water with higher nitrate content is harmful . The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined that 10.00 mg/l of nitrate is the maximum contamination level (MCL) for water to be used for drinking purpose . The concentration of nitrate in receiving waters is significantly impacted by runoff from farming operations and waste disposal sites. The usage of fertilizers on farms may have contributed to receiving streams’ elevated nitrate levels through leaching and surface runoff during heavy rains.

• Ammonia (NH₃) Determination

Ammonia is a consequence of the protein metabolism that fish harvest, as well as the breakdown of bacterial of biological waste like dead planktons, food scraps and manure. Both ionized or unionized and ammonia are referred to as “total ammonia,” yet only the unionized form (NH₃) is extremely toxic .

• TSS Measurement

Total suspended solids, also known as non-filterable solids, are those solids that are retained by a filter with 1-micron holes. By running a known volume of sewage sample through a glass fiber filter equipment and weighing the dry residue that remains, their amount may be calculated .

• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Measurement

Total dissolved solids, also known as filterable solids, are those solids that are not retained by a filter with 1-micron holes. By running a known amount of sewage sample through a glass fibre filter equipment and weighing the dry residue that remains after boiling the filtrate sewage, their quantity may be calculated.

• Measurement of Turbidity

As soon as you can after the sample is taken, determine the turbidity. Before examination, gently stir all samples to achieve a representative measurement. If sample preservation is not possible, start the analysis right away. If storage is necessary, refrigerate or cool to 4°C to reduce the amount of microbial degradation of solids. For the best outcomes, test the turbidity right away without changing the pH or temperature of the original sample. A digital turbidity meter is used to measure turbidity. This was calibrated using a standard NTU .

• Heavy Metals Measurement

Each sample of acid-digested water weighed 100 cm³ and was placed in a beaker. The beaker was then placed in a 70°C oven to condense the water to 50 cm³. Using an atomic absorption spectrometer, the concentrations of Co, Cu, Cr, CD, Zn, PB and Ni in each sample of water were measured (AAS: AAS: LABINDIA: AA- 7000) Prior to analysis, AAS required phase of acid digestion, which was accomplished by exposing the samples to concentrated HNO₃ [29]. Samples are digested using the methods endorsed by the American Public Health Association (APHA). The suggestions in the instruction manual were used to determine the instrument settings (IO).

• Index of Water Quality (WQI) Measurement

The WQI is premeditated in three steps. Each criterion was given a weight (W_i) in the first phase based on its relative significance to the overall quality of water intended for consumption. Nitrate has been given a maximum weight of 5 due to its significant role in determining the water quality . The relative weight is computed using Eq. 1 in the second step.

Where n is the number of parameters, relative weight is denoted by W_i and w_i represents the weight of each parameter. The parameter’s calculated W_i values are provided in Table 1.

In the third stage, by dividing each parameter’s concentration in each water sample by the relevant standard, according to the BIS specifications, and multiplying the result by 100, a quality rating scale (q_i) is obtained for each parameter (Eq.2)

Where S_i is the BIS-recommended standard for Indian drinking water in mg/l for each chemical parameter and C_i is the concentration of each chemical parameter in every single water sample in mg/l. The parameter’s optimal value in clear water is C_io. With pH, q_i is equal to (C_i – 7)/(S_i – 7)100 and C_io is equal to 7. For the remaining parameters, the optimal value is 0.

Table 1. Chemical parameters and their relative weight

Chemical indicators	Weight	Indian Standard	Relative weight (Wi)
Magnesium	2.00	30.00	0.091
Total hardness	2.00	300.00	0.091
Calcium	2.00	75.00	0.091
TDS	4.00	500.00	0.182
Chloride	3.00	250.00	0.136
pH	4.00	6.50-8.50	0.182
Nitrate	5.00	45.00	0.227

Each parameter’s sub index (SI), which is utilized to calculate the WQI in accordance with Equations 3 and 4, is first determined in order to calculate the WQI.

The i^th parameter’s subindex is SI_i. The estimated WQI values are classified into five categories in Table 2.

Table 2. Classification of water quality based on WQI value.

Water Quality Index	Quality of Water
>300.00	Unsuitable
200.00-300.00	Very poor
100.00-200.00	Poor
50.00-100.00	Good
<50.00	Excellent

The five categories range from “good water” to ” unfit for drinking water”, according to the computed WQI values (Table 2). The WQI has an inter-seasonal range of 28 to 267, with 24% of water-bodies rated outstanding in the pre- and post-monsoon seasons and 18% rated excellent during the monsoon season. Approximately 62%, 58% and 60% of water bodies are in good quality during the monsoon, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively in pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. 14%, 16% and 12% of water bodies were found to be poor water bodies in the respective seasons. The remaining 6%, 2% and 4% of water bodies were very poor water bodies in aforesaid seasons. 16% and 48% of water bodies are in excellent and good water bodies throughout the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Limits for the physicochemical properties of lake water in India are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Physical and chemical features of Indian lake water

Sr.	Parameter	BIS Specification
1	PH	6.50-8.50
2	Color	5 Hazena max
3	Appearance	Clear
4	Turbidity	5 NTU max
5	Alkalinity	200 mg/L max
6	EC	lacking mention
7	Chloride	250 mg/L max
8	Florid	1 mg/L max
9	Sulfate	200 mg/L max
10	Phosphate	lacking mention
11	Ca H	75 mg/L max
12	T H	300 mg/L max
13	TDS	500 mg/L max
14	Mg H	30 mg/L
15	FRC	0.25 mg/L
16	Silica	lacking mention
17	COD	lacking mention
18	Hydrazine	lacking mention
19	DO	lacking mention
20	BOD	lacking mention
21	NO3	50 g/L
22	SO3	lacking mention

• Physicochemical Review of Some Water Samples from India

The study of physical-chemical parameters is crucial to obtaining a precise understanding of the water quality, and it allows us to compare the results of various chemical and physical parameter values with reference values (Table 3). Here is a brief summary of some previous research studies. Pulp and paper sector effluents are one of India’s most polluting industries, according to Tripathi . Small and large pulp and paper mills use several procedures that produce effluents with drastically varying physical-chemical characteristics due to their disparate production capacities and raw material sources. To diminish the impact of various pollutants on the environment, before being released into the drainage channel, such contaminated effluents must undergo sufficient treatment. Based on the findings presented here, it can be stated that the effluent emitted from both paper industries is extremely contaminated and exceeds the limits set by Indian regulatory agency norms. Furthermore, it is claimed that the pollutants produced at various stages of the paper manufacturing process can be reduced either by replacement of some current bleaching and pulping techniques with ECF (Elemental Chlorine Free bleaching), bio-pulping, TCF (Total Chlorine Free bleaching), bio-bleaching, and ozone bleaching, or by treating the effluent with physical, biological or chemical methods. This monitoring research of pulp and paper mill effluent collected from wood-based and agro-based sources resulted in the creation of a data bank that may be used to successfully anticipate their toxicity and implement appropriate management. Agarwal’s research shows that the water in the Bihar River can perform as a good habitat, provides educational data, and aids in understanding water features. The pH value suggests that the alkaline water in May have resulted from the high temperature, which suggests that CO₂ is soluble in the water. The Bihar River’s Baba Ghat’s water quality metrics, including alkalinity, total hardness, chloride ion, pH, BOD, COD are all well within the acceptable range, according to the analysis. Consequently, appropriate methods should be developed. According to research by Vyas , the majority of fresh water bodies worldwide are becoming contaminated by human waste, industrial waste, sewage, , agricultural waste, and religious practices like idol immersion. The Central Pollution Control Board has created a thorough set of regulations regarding the act of immersing idols in oceans, lakes and rivers (Guidelines for Idol Immersion, CPCB, 2006). These regulations outline and define the function of state pollution control boards in evaluating the water quality of aquatic bodies and categorizing them according to specific physiochemical parameters. If these recommendations are followed and put into practices, the quality of the river’s water after idol immersion could significantly improve. Tamot asserts that the most crucial metric for determining the water quality is DO, which was discovered to be Nil at seven places despite being necessary for all aquatic creatures’ metabolism. Ganai and Parveen [56] came to the conclusion that water temperature and water chemistry are the primary influences on phytoplankton dispersal, chloride, transparency, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, TDS and CO₂. Hardness and Conductivity, on the other hand, have less of an impact on the distribution of phytoplankton groups. Rani Lake water displays low high COD, BOD, DO, hardness, turbidity, alkalinity, chloride, TDS, nitrate and phosphate during 2008 and 2009, according to Mishra [57]. These parameters’ values were discovered to be over the allowable limit (IS: 10500). A higher pH number implies that the water is slightly alkaline. The results unambiguously show that sewage discharge and other anthropogenic activities have caused this lake to become contaminated and entropic in character. The amount of oxygen utilized during aerobic processes of organic material degradation brought on by microorganisms is measured by biological oxygen demand. Therefore, the BOD provides details on the proportion of an organic substance in a sample of water that can be converted biologically. As a result, it is necessary to take into account how susceptible certain materials are to oxygen oxidation. The pre- during, and post-immersion activities yielded the ranges of 1.4-35, 4-55, and 3.3-38 mg/L. At Site-7, the immersion period produced the highest BOD value (Majnu Ka Tila). Analysis was also done on the COD, which is frequently used to estimate indirectly how many organic chemicals are present in water. COD is a helpful indicator of water quality because the majority of its applications estimate the volume of organic contaminants present in wastewater or surface water (such as lakes and rivers). As indicated by a number of researchers [58-61], the value of COD in conjugation with BOD is beneficial in determining the hazardous circumstances and existence of physiologically resistant organic compounds.

• Conclusions and Recommendations

The water quality of rivers and lakes has declined as a result of all the aforementioned effects. It provides a hint for municipal authorities to create effective management plans. The main factors influencing temperature variation are atmospheric temperature and weather. The industrial effluents that were released may have contributed to the pH decrease in Indian water bodies. This outcome is consistent with prior scientists’ reports. The decrease in water volume due to rapid evaporation at high temperatures, high loadings of organic compounds, chlorides, detergent and other pollutants are all responsible for the increase in hardness. Low levels of DO as a result of wastewater discharge from enterprises that were discharging some biological wastes that demanded a lot of oxygen. An important factor that is frequently used to estimate the pollutant load of waste water is biological oxygen demand. The purpose of the BOD test is to quantify the quantity of carbonaceous matter that is biochemically oxidized. Values of BOD were caused by a faster rate of organic matter decomposition with turbidity, at a higher temperature and slower water current. A test called chemical oxygen demand is used to gauge how polluting household and industrial waste. This provides important information regarding the possibility for pollution from home sewage and industrial effluents. Many aquatic zones in India have high COD value, which shows that industrial effluents released by industrial units are mostly to blame for the pollution there. Therefore, it is crucial to check the water’s purity using the several criteria listed above before utilizing it.

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